Did Paul and Jesus’ Disciples Agree on the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus?

Christian Claim:

Even the most skeptical scholars, such as Bart Ehrman, acknowledge that the disciples believed Jesus was crucified and that they saw him after his crucifixion. Paul and the disciples of Jesus were clearly aligned on these points, as evidenced by 1 Corinthians 15:1-11:

“1 Now I would remind you, brothers, of the gospel I preached to you, which you received, in which you stand, 2 and by which you are being saved, if you hold fast to the word I preached to you—unless you believed in vain. 3 For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, 4 that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures, 5 and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. 6 Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep. 7 Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. 8 Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me. 9 For I am the least of the apostles, unworthy to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God. 10 But by the grace of God I am what I am, and his grace toward me was not in vain. On the contrary, I worked harder than any of them, though it was not I, but the grace of God that is with me. 11 Whether then it was I or they, so we preach and so you believed.”

Response:

Unsurprisingly, nearly all New Testament scholars agree that Jesus was crucified. Many of these scholars are either Christians, who expectedly believe in the crucifixion, or atheists/agnostics with anti-supernatural biases who would reject the Islamic belief that God made it appear as if Jesus was crucified. These same atheist/agnostic scholars also do not believe in the resurrection. Christians would argue that this is because they dismiss the possibility of miracles from the outset. Likewise, these scholars would disregard the Qur’an’s account and instead offer a natural explanation, namely that Jesus died on the cross.

The Qur’an acknowledges that people in the past believed in the crucifixion of Jesus, as Allah made it appear to them that this was what happened. The distinguished Christian philosopher, Rev Professor John Hick, was honest enough to admit:

“Historically it is very difficult to dispute the qur’anic verse since presumably it would not be possible for observers at the time to tell the difference between Jesus being crucified and his only appearing to be crucified – unless what is suggested is that someone else was crucified in his place.” Religious Pluralism and Islam, Lecture delivered to the Institute for Islamic Culture and Thought, Tehran, in February 2005.

We cannot know what the disciples believed about the resurrection. The speeches in Acts are Luke’s compositions, and the authenticity of the letters attributed to Peter and James is doubtful. Similarly, according to modern critical scholarship, the attribution of the Gospels to Mark (supposedly representing Peter), Matthew, and John is also questionable. Since we have no direct writings from the disciples, we cannot be certain—purely based on the historical sources available—what they believed or did not believe about Jesus (peace be upon him).

No solid evidence shows that Jesus (peace be upon him) preached that he would die and rise again after a specific period. After the crucifixion, the disciples are depicted as being saddened by Jesus’ (peace be upon him) death, seemingly forgetting his supposed predictions of resurrection, which casts doubt on their historicity. This raises the question of whether the disciples had an experience that convinced them Jesus (peace be upon him) rose from the dead or if this belief developed later and was retroactively attributed to the disciples. Ultimately, we lack incontrovertible evidence directly linked to the disciples themselves.

It is possible that after God raised Jesus (peace be upon him), He granted the disciples a vision of Jesus to assure them that he was alive. The declaration of Jesus being alive following the widespread belief in his death could seamlessly evolve, through a sequence of stages, into the proclamation of his resurrection.[1] The original proclamation might have been that Jesus was alive, which was later altered to mean that he rose from the dead rather than merely surviving death. Thus, the fully developed resurrection proclamation could have resulted from a confused scenario, where some people claimed Jesus died and they saw him on the cross, while others insisted he did not die and they saw him alive afterward. A way to reconcile these views could be that he died but rose from the dead (i.e., the resurrection).

But why would God not correct that belief if the disciples believed that Jesus resurrected from the dead?

However, one might wonder: Why would God find it necessary to rectify this belief? Divine revelation doesn’t divulge every detail but rather imparts what is essential for our salvation. The paramount concern isn’t correcting the belief in Jesus’ resurrection per se. Instead, what requires correction is its utilization to underpin Christian doctrines asserting his divinity and sacrificial death for our sins. This includes the belief, held by certain Jews and followers of Paul, that his death resembled that of an accursed individual, as referenced in Galatians 3:13. Notably, these issues didn’t trouble the disciples themselves; they emerged in the minds of later individuals.[2]

Thus, the disciples could have mistakenly come to believe in Jesus’ (peace be upon him) resurrection. God saved Jesus (peace be upon him), and when he appeared before the disciples in different places after the crucifixion event, they might have assumed he had come back to life from the dead rather than realizing he did not die in the first place. God did not reveal to the disciples that Jesus (peace be upon him) had actually survived death and was miraculously rescued. The critical point was accepting Jesus (peace be upon him) as God’s Messiah, servant, and prophet and observing God’s laws as taught by Jesus (peace be upon him).

We have strong indications that this is what the earliest followers of Jesus (peace be upon him), led by James, believed and practiced. They did not worship Jesus (peace be upon him) as God; instead, they accepted him as the Messiah, servant, and prophet and adhered to the laws, making regular sacrifices and practicing circumcision. Whether Jesus (peace be upon him) died or was rescued was irrelevant and of little significance to their faith and practice.

Regarding 1 Corinthians 15:1-11, Paul does not say he is presenting a formula “from the disciples.” Instead, he states that he is passing on what “I also received” (paralambanō, v. 3) – without specifying the source.

What did he receive? He received:

a) Christ died for our sins - Firstly, it’s important to note that not all believed this statement.[3] Secondly, the concept of “dying for your sins” can be understood in a non-Pauline manner, which aligns with Jewish thought and is also compatible with an Islamic perspective. There are two major interpretations:

1. Paul’s interpretation: Jesus died as an atonement for sins and was resurrected. Salvation is attained through belief in this atonement rather than adherence to the law. According to this view, God resolved the problem of sin through Jesus’ sacrifice.

2. A more traditional Jewish understanding: 

a) Staying in the covenant: Following God’s laws and commandments.

b) Acknowledging imperfection: Recognizing that individuals will inevitably commit intentional or unintentional transgressions.

c) Consequences of transgressions: One temporarily falls out of the covenant when a transgression occurs.

d) Path to atonement: Atonement is achieved through various means, such as animal sacrifices, burnt offerings, or sincere repentance.

e) Restoration of grace: Applying the appropriate method of atonement restores one to their original state of grace within the covenant.

This traditional Jewish understanding emphasizes the ongoing relationship between adherents and God, focusing on repentance and restoration rather than a singular act of atonement.

b) In accordance with the Scriptures - according to which ‘scriptures’ was Christ to die for sins? This is either Paul’s own contribution or that of Jesus ‘followers’ with whom he may have acquired some beliefs. 

c) that he [i.e., Christ] was raised on the third day - this refers to accounts of people seeing Jesus alive after the crucifixion. Two logical conclusions can be drawn: 1. He was not killed in the first place; 2. He was killed and has been brought back to life by God. Without reiterating the argument that we lack direct accounts from the disciples, let’s suppose they also arrived at this logical conclusion: God brought Jesus back to life. From an Islamic perspective, this isn’t problematic. They could have mistakenly believed that Jesus died, especially given the widespread belief in his crucifixion. However, after being convinced of his resurrection, they assumed God had revived him. The disciples maintained their belief in Jesus as God’s Prophet and Messiah, adhering to the laws and commandments. Therefore, this interpretation poses no significant issue, Islamically speaking.

d) 5 and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. 6 Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep. 7 Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles - We can either accept this claim at face value or consider it an exaggerated assertion to persuade an audience. Ultimately, only God knows the truth. But how did Jesus “appear”? Alive? Let’s assume so. However, this does not imply that everyone who witnessed his appearance believed two key points: 1) that Jesus died as an atonement for sins, thus negating the need for adhering to the works of the law, and 2) that he was more than a man.

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[1] Dr. Shabir Ally proposes the following:

“We now know that there was an earlier faith that Jesus was assumed into heaven from his grave (pre-Markan passion), and perhaps another that he was assumed into heaven alive (a la Zeller). In this case we can see a series of developments:

1. Jesus is believed to have been assumed into heaven alive (Q Gospel);
2. Jesus is believed to have been assumed from his tomb into heaven (Pre-Markan);
3. It is promised that Jesus will appear to his disciples in Galilee (Mark’s addition to the pre-Marcan story).
4a. Jesus appears to his disciples in Galilee (John 21:1-14) but he does not say anything bearing on the question of his death or resurrection (the rest of that chapter must be seen as a separate episode).
4b. Jesus is believed to have appeared to his disciples in a vision (final scene in Matthew);
5. The reality of the vision is stressed: Jesus is said to have had a spiritual body, whatever that means (Paul);
6. The reality of the vision is further stressed: Now Jesus has a body that can be touched (appearance to the women in Matthew; and to Mary Magdalene in John; and to Thomas; and to the disciples in Luke).

There are more nuances to mention, and more possible steps in this development. But this gives a general picture that is quite reasonable. With this in mind it is not necessary for Muslims to disagree with the traditions about the empty tomb, for this merely establishes assumption into heaven. Nor is it necessary to deny the appearances to the disciples, but only to explain that the appearances have multiplied from a singular event of a spiritual kind to multiple events, the later ones stressing the bodily form (even physical) of the resurrected Jesus (Brown and, to an extent, Dunn).”

[2] Also see: Whose Religion Teaches An Incompetent Messiah, Group of Disciples And God? A Response to Nabeel Qureshi

[3] See: Lack of Atonement in Luke/Acts